a b c d Philip Robson (1999). Forbidden Drugs. Oxford University Press. p. 161. ISBN 978-0-19-262955-5. a b Aurin, Marcus (January 1, 2000). "Chasing the Dragon: The Cultural Metamorphosis of Opium in the United States, 1825–1935". Medical Anthropology Quarterly. 14 (3): 414–441. doi: 10.1525/maq.2000.14.3.414. JSTOR 649506. PMID 11036586. Opiates". Homehealth-uk.com. Archived from the original on October 31, 2011 . Retrieved October 7, 2011. Extensive textual and pictorial sources also show that poppy cultivation and opium consumption were widespread in Safavid Iran [42] and Mughal India. [43] England [ edit ]

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William Travis Hanes; Frank Sanello (2004). Opium Wars: The Addiction of One Empire and the Corruption of Another. Sourcebooks, Inc. pp.78–. ISBN 978-1-4022-0149-3. John K. Fairbanks, "The Creation of the Treaty System' in John K. Fairbanks, ed. The Cambridge History of China, vol. 10 Part 1 (Cambridge University Press, 1992) p. 213. cited in John Newsinger (October 1997). "Britain's opium wars – fact and myth about the opium trade in the East". Monthly Review. Archived from the original on February 13, 2006. As a Class A drug the maximum sentence for the possession of opium is 7 years. The maximum sentences for supply and/or production are life imprisonment, a fine or both. History Hideyuki Takano; The Shore Beyond Good and Evil: A Report from Inside Burma's Opium Kingdom (2002, Kotan, ISBN 0-9701716-1-7)Hall, Wayne; Weier, Megan (2017). "Lee Robins' studies of heroin use among US Vietnam veterans". Addiction. 112 (1): 177. doi: 10.1111/add.13584. PMID 27650054. S2CID 206974500 . Retrieved July 26, 2022. Recreational use of opium was part of a civilized and mannered ritual, akin to an East Asian tea ceremony, prior to the extensive prohibitions that came later. [44] In places of gathering, often tea shops, or a person's home servings of opium were offered as a form of greeting and politeness. Often served with tea (in China) and with specific and fine utensils and beautifully carved wooden pipes. The wealthier the smoker, the finer and more expensive material used in ceremony. [44] The image of seedy underground, destitute smokers were often generated by anti-opium narratives and became a more accurate image of opium use following the effects of large scale opium prohibition in the 1880s. [44] Prohibitions in China [ edit ] Santella, Thomas M.; Triggle, D. J. (2009). Opium. Facts On File, Incorporated. p.8. ISBN 9781438102139. a b Kramer John C (1979). "Opium Rampant: Medical Use, Misuse and Abuse in Britain and the West in the 17th and 18th Centuries". British Journal of Addiction. 74 (4): 377–389. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1979.tb01367.x. PMID 396938. Dikötter, Frank, Lars Laamann, and Zhou Xun. Narcotic culture: a history of drugs in China Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.

Opium - Wikipedia Opium - Wikipedia

Smith RD (October 1980). "Avicenna and the Canon of Medicine: a millennial tribute". The Western Journal of Medicine. 133 (4): 367–70. PMC 1272342. PMID 7051568. Martin, Steven. The Art of Opium Antiques. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, 2007. Photographs and history of Chinese and Vietnamese opium-smoking paraphernalia.Jennifer Hull (June 24, 2001). "Eastern Europe Shooting Up Under A Red Star". Time . Retrieved April 17, 2020. The first known cultivation of opium poppies was in Mesopotamia, approximately 3400 BCE, by Sumerians, who called the plant hul gil, the "joy plant". [11] [12] Tablets found at Nippur, a Sumerian spiritual center south of Baghdad, described the collection of poppy juice in the morning and its use in production of opium. [1] Cultivation continued in the Middle East by the Assyrians, who also collected poppy juice in the morning after scoring the pods with an iron scoop; they called the juice aratpa-pal, possibly the root of Papaver. [13] Opium production continued under the Babylonians and Egyptians. The earliest clear description of the use of opium as a recreational drug in China came from Xu Boling, who wrote in 1483 that opium was "mainly used to aid masculinity, strengthen sperm and regain vigor", and that it "enhances the art of alchemists, sex and court ladies". He also described an expedition sent by the Ming dynasty Chenghua Emperor in 1483 to procure opium for a price "equal to that of gold" in Hainan, Fujian, Zhejiang, Sichuan and Shaanxi, where it is close to the western lands of Xiyu. A century later, Li Shizhen listed standard medical uses of opium in his renowned Compendium of Materia Medica (1578), but also wrote that "lay people use it for the art of sex," in particular the ability to "arrest seminal emission". This association of opium with sex continued in China until the end of the 19th century.

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The process continued until 1817, when Sertürner published his results after thirteen years of research and a nearly disastrous trial on himself and three boys. [102] The great advantage of purified morphine was that a patient could be treated with a known dose—whereas with raw plant material, as Gabriel Fallopius once lamented, "if soporifics are weak they do not help; if they are strong they are exceedingly dangerous." Opium poppies are popular and attractive garden plants, whose flowers vary greatly in color, size and form. A modest amount of domestic cultivation in private gardens is not usually subject to legal controls. In part, this tolerance reflects variation in addictive potency. A cultivar for opium production, Papaver somniferum L. elite, contains 91.2 percent morphine, codeine, and thebaine in its latex alkaloids, whereas in the latex of the condiment cultivar "Marianne", these three alkaloids total only 14.0 percent. The remaining alkaloids in the latter cultivar are primarily narcotoline and noscapine. [114] For the illegal drug trade, the morphine is extracted from the opium latex, reducing the bulk weight by 88%. It is then converted to heroin which is almost twice as potent, [6] and increases the value by a similar factor. The reduced weight and bulk make it easier to smuggle.In 1856 a similar incident led to a second ‘Opium War’ with the British navy shelling Canton and opening up other ports. The opium trade increased again so that up to 15 million Chinese became regular opium smokers. The Chinese authorities made opium use legal and began to grow their own poppies. Within a few decades Chinese opium production outstripped the Indian grown supplies and British sales and influence declined. In time China became a main supply for opium use in Europe. Meadway C, George S, Braithwaite R (August 31, 1998). "Opiate concentrations following the ingestion of poppy seed products—evidence for 'the poppy seed defence' ". Forensic Science International. 96 (1): 29–38. doi: 10.1016/S0379-0738(98)00107-8. PMID 9800363. J.P. Jones (February 1931). "Lascars in the port of London". P.L.A. Monthly . Retrieved May 12, 2007. Anderson, Stuart; Berridge, Virginia (2000). "Opium In 20th-Century Britain: Pharmacists, Regulation And The People". Addiction. 95 (1): 23–36. doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.951234.x. PMID 10723823. Speer, William (1870). The oldest and the newest empire: China and the United States. Hartford, Conn., S. S. Scranton and company; Philadelphia, Parmelee & co.; [etc., etc.]