The initial inspiration for functionalism comes from the useful analogy of minds with computing machines, as noted above. Putnam was certainly not the first to notice that this comparison could be theoretically fruitful. But in his “functionalist papers” of the 1950s and 1960s, he methodically explored the utility, and oversaw the transition of the idea from mere analogy to comprehensive theory, culminating with his classic defense of the functional state theory in his 1967 paper, “The Nature of Mental States.” There Putnam advanced the case for functionalism as a serious theoretical hypothesis, and his argument goes beyond the mere claim that it is fruitful to think of minds as being in many ways similar to machines. This argument aims to establish the conclusion that the best theory is the one that holds that minds “just are” machines of a certain sort. 4. The Case for Functionalism Here, I’ll focus mainly on Western philosophy. I’ll create another book list about Eastern philosophers at a later time. The most famous arguments for functionalism are responses not to behaviorism but to the mind-brain identity theory. According to the identity theory, “sensations are brain processes” (Smart 1959). If mental state kinds are (identical to) kinds of brain states, then there is a one-to-one relation between mental state kinds and brain state kinds. Everything that has sensation S must have brain state B, and everything that has brain state B must have sensation S. Not only that, but this one-to-one correlation must not be accidental. It must be a law of nature, at least, and perhaps must hold with an even stronger sort of necessity. Put this way, the mind-brain identity theory seems to make a very strong claim, indeed. As Hilary Putnam notes, Overall, I think the A Very Short Introduction series has a little bit of something for everyone. In addition, each book is written by an established expert in his / her respective field, so you’re in good hands.

Reasonable people can come out on either side, but there are some indications in recent science that change the debate in new ways, eroding as they do the distinction between an independent physical universe and one that depends on a mind behind it all. There are crass and silly ways to be a believer, as well as for being a nonbeliever. Who is right? The first great skeptical philosopher of the ancient world was Pyrrho of Elis (circa 310–270 B.C.). After traveling with Alexander the Great as a court philosopher, Pyrrho returned home to teach great crowds of admirers and seekers. He was known for presenting philosophy as a way of life that aims at a calmness of the spirit and happiness of the heart. The activities that a key does, could do, or is supposed to do may be called its functions. So one can say that keys are essentially things that have certain functions, i.e., they are functional entities. (Or the kind key is a functional kind.) We can be poor thinkers or good philosophers. But quality comes only with care. So, careful thinking makes for the best philosophy. Does your philosophy of life imprison you or liberate you? In this book, I try to dispel some of the myths and platitudes of our own age and get out of the cave of our false assumptions. We seek philosophical enlightenment, philosophical liberation. You can see in examining this question how many of the others considered by philosophy relate to each other and to constructing an ultimate worldview for yourself. There are truths to be known, elusive facts that matter deeply but that are long debated. Some people just give up on knowing. But those who persist can make more progress than they might have imagined.Philosophy For Dummies is for anyone who has ever entertained a question about life and this world. In a conversational tone, the book's author – a modern-day scholar and lecturer – brings the greatest wisdom of the past into the challenges that we face now. This refreshingly different guide explains philosophical fundamentals and explores some of the strangest and deepest questions ever posed to human beings, such as

The safest characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. — Alfred North Whitehead Chapter 3 The Love of Wisdom In This Chapter The logical structure of the zombie argument is just the same as with the other twin and doppelgänger arguments, like the Super-Spartans discussed above: Dualists, by contrast, think there are two fundamental substances or sorts of stuff in reality: typically, matter and mind, or energy and thought. bullet Is ethics just a matter of opinion, or do objective moral rules exist that are binding on every person? That is a vivid image of the ultimate task of philosophy. Its goal is to free us from illusion and to help us get a grip on the most fundamental realities.

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If human beings are just carbon-based, fleshly robots, instruments of nature whose every thought, emotion, and action is forced on them by natural causes beyond their control, the whole idea of suggesting to others how they should or should not act seems to be a nonstarter. Many people seem to fear self-examination, as if looking at and evaluating their most basic beliefs and values is somehow a threat. But a philosophically reflective examination of our most basic assumptions and commitments doesn’t necessarily have a corrosive effect. It may, by contrast, have a purifying effect. The fundamental goal of philosophical examination isn’t criticism in a negative sense, or any sort of rejection or abandonment. The true goal is understanding. And yet a greater level of understanding often results in a refocusing, a shedding of unnecessary or unimportant activities and an adopting of others — rebalancing and changing our lives in a positive way. When we’re young, other people decide what we wear, what we eat, and when we can play. All too often, even after we’re older, other people still decide what we do during the day. We make choices, lots of them, but often from a limited selection of options that our environment, our friends, families, and employers, and simple habit, present to us. Rarely, if ever, do we stop to reflect on what we truly want in life, on who we are and want to become, on what difference we want to make in the world, and thus on what’s really right for us. And that is the unexamined life — the life that is lived at some level almost as a sleepwalker, somnambulating away the hours, days, and years. It’s a life that is experienced on automatic pilot — a life based on values and beliefs that we’ve never really looked at, never really tested, never examined for ourselves. Tip Ethical theory serves as the foundation for ethical solutions to the difficult situations people encounter in life. In fact, for centuries, philosophers have come up with theoretical ways of telling right from wrong and for giving guidelines about how to live and act ethically. Here are a few ethical theories to whet your appetite:

Be kinder to the environment. People typically see recycling or using certain kinds of household products as neutral lifestyle choices. However, ethics may actually demand a particular sort of interaction with the world around you. Sawing down a tree is innocent enough, but when you think of trees as parts of ecosystems that keep humans alive, things become less clear-cut. However, keep in mind the book is a bit pricey (due to its relative rarity?). You might want to first search for it in your local library. Philosophy as a way of thinking cultivates our ability to analyze complicated problems. It helps us untie mental knots. It teaches us to get to the core of an issue. It shows us how to peel away peripheral issues and penetrate to the essence of a matter: What’s really important here? What’s ultimately at issue? How can I break this problem down into more manageable questions?The 19th-century philosophical wild man, Friedrich Nietzsche, took it one more step and even went so far as to characterize philosophy as an explosive, in the presence of which everything is in danger. So, then, it really comes as no surprise to see Nietzsche’s predecessor, the English poet John Keats, asking, Do not all charms fly at the mere touch of cold philosophy? As common as it is to wonder about death, it is just as universal to worry about it. And many people fear it greatly, for one or another of several reasons. It’s important in philosophy to understand the various different fears that exist regarding death and whether there are any deeply wise perspectives on how to handle this emotion, or attitude, and perhaps even vanquish it. Analysis is a skill that you need everywhere in life. Lawyers analyze complex claims and sort out the issues; physicians analyze symptoms; detectives look for patterns in the evidence; business people sort through the parts of an intricate deal; parents try to untangle and get a grip on the issues troubling a family. The skill of analysis is useful in every walk of life. Analysis is so prominent in philosophical ways of thinking that a major trend of 20th-century thought is even known as analytic philosophy because of its emphasis on the centrality of this skill. But all good philosophy involves close analysis. Martin Heidegger (1889–1976): The most thoroughly academic of the existentialists. His involvement with the Nazi party couldn’t stop his magnum opus from being one of the most influential books of the 20th century. Consider how you interact with animals. Some folks may think animals don’t ethically matter. However, most ethical theories disagree. So before you abuse a dog, take a bite out of that next steak, or raise cattle inhumanely, you have to consider some ethical arguments. After all, animals feel pain and suffer just like humans. Perhaps this possibility of pain and suffering entitles them to rights and considerations that you’re ethically expected to respect.